Acropolis of Athens: How Antiquity’s Most Famous Sanctuary Came to Be

Location: The Acropolis rises on a steep rocky hill in the heart of Athens. Its almost flat plateau lies around 156 metres above sea level and towers above the surrounding neighbourhoods. From here, views stretch across Athens to the surrounding hills.

Significance: The Acropolis of Athens is one of the most important surviving architectural complexes of ancient Greece. Its principal temples were built in the 5th century BC, when Athens was enjoying a political, cultural and artistic golden age. For centuries, its architecture served as a model for buildings far beyond Greece. Around 4.6 million people visit the Acropolis each year.

Early history: The earliest traces of settlement on the Acropolis date from the Neolithic period, between around 3500 and 3100 BC. In the 13th century BC, the rocky hill was heavily fortified and served as the seat of a Mycenaean ruler. From the 8th century BC onwards, the Acropolis increasingly developed into a sanctuary dedicated to Athena, the city’s patron goddess. Larger temples and numerous votive offerings appeared in the 6th century BC. This earlier temple complex was largely destroyed in 480 BC when the Persians captured Athens.

Athena: Athena was the patron goddess of Athens and one of the most important deities in the Greek world. She was regarded above all as the goddess of wisdom, craftsmanship and strategic warfare. On the Acropolis, she was worshipped with temples, offerings and major festivals. In depictions, she often appears wearing a helmet and carrying a spear and shield. The owl is one of her best-known symbols.

Persian destruction: In 480 BC, Persian forces captured Athens and devastated the Acropolis. Temples and numerous votive offerings were destroyed or severely damaged. After the Persians withdrew, the Athenians buried some of the debris. Other architectural elements were reused in the expansion of the fortification walls. Only several decades later did the major rebuilding of the Acropolis begin, producing the famous temples that survive today.

Rebuilding under Pericles: From 447 BC onwards, the leading Athenian statesman Pericles had the Acropolis redesigned as part of an extensive building programme. The Parthenon was built first. From 437 BC, work began on the Propylaea, the monumental entrance. In the following decades, the Temple of Athena Nike and the Erechtheion were added, with the latter completed in 406 BC. The new sanctuaries served the worship of the gods while also expressing the wealth and political ambitions of Athens in the 5th century BC.

Athens at its height: In the 5th century BC, Athens developed into one of the leading powers of the Greek world. Its prosperity was based partly on trade through the port of Piraeus, the silver mines of Laurion and payments made by members of the Athenian-led Delian League. A powerful fleet secured the city’s influence across the Aegean. At the same time, architecture, art, theatre and philosophy flourished. Politically, Athens was a democracy, although only adult male citizens were allowed to participate. Women, free immigrants and enslaved people had no political rights.

The Acropolis at its height: In the late 5th century BC, the Acropolis was a vibrant religious centre filled with temples, altars, statues and numerous votive offerings. Sculptures and architectural details were originally brightly painted and in some cases decorated with metal ornaments. Sacrificial ceremonies usually took place outdoors at altars. The temples, by contrast, were primarily used to house cult statues and valuable offerings. Women and girls also played important roles in religious life. The highlight was the Panathenaic Festival in honour of Athena. During the great procession, a newly woven robe for the goddess’s ancient cult statue was carried up to the Acropolis. Animal sacrifices were then performed at the great altar.

From antiquity to Christianity: Even after the classical golden age, the Acropolis remained an important sanctuary for centuries. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, further votive offerings and smaller buildings were added, while the major temples continued to be used. With the spread of Christianity, their function changed fundamentally. By the end of the 5th century, several ancient sanctuaries had been converted into Christian churches. The Parthenon also became a church and was later dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The Acropolis therefore gradually lost its former importance as a centre for the worship of the ancient gods.

Middle Ages: During the Middle Ages, the Acropolis was increasingly used as a fortress and seat of power. The Parthenon initially remained a Christian church and, under Western rule, temporarily served as a Catholic cathedral. After the Ottoman conquest of Athens in 1458, it was later converted into a mosque. Other ancient buildings were also given new functions or incorporated into the fortifications. Despite these changes, the most important monuments remained largely intact until the middle of the 17th century.

Explosion of the Parthenon: In 1687, Venetian forces besieged the Acropolis, which was defended by the Ottomans. The Ottomans had stored large quantities of gunpowder inside the Parthenon. On 26 September, a Venetian artillery shell struck the temple and triggered a massive explosion. Large parts of the still comparatively well-preserved Parthenon collapsed. These included numerous columns, walls and sections of the sculptural decoration. The explosion caused some of the most severe damage in the building’s history.

Independence and restoration: Between 1801 and 1805, the British diplomat Lord Elgin had numerous sculptures and architectural elements removed from the Acropolis and taken to Britain. During the Greek War of Independence, the Acropolis was besieged again and suffered further damage. After the establishment of the modern Greek state, systematic research and restoration of the site began in the 19th century. Since 1975, the monuments have been conserved and restored as part of a comprehensive scientific programme. A large proportion of the surviving Parthenon sculptures are now held in the British Museum in London. Greece has been calling for decades for their permanent reunification with the sections preserved in Athens.

Resistance during the Second World War: During the German occupation of Athens, a swastika flag flew over the Acropolis. On the night of 30 to 31 May 1941, the two 19-year-old Greeks Manolis Glezos and Apostolos Santas reached the rocky hill unnoticed and removed the flag. The occupying authorities sentenced the initially unidentified perpetrators to death in absentia. Their action became an early symbol of Greek resistance to the German occupation. Both later continued to take part in the resistance and survived the war.

Layout of the site: The Acropolis consists of a rocky plateau around 300 metres long and up to 150 metres wide, together with the surrounding slopes. The rock drops steeply on almost every side. The main entrance leads from the west through the Propylaea, the monumental gateway. The best-known buildings on the plateau are the Parthenon, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike. Between them are the remains of other sanctuaries and buildings. The slopes also formed part of the religious and cultural centre. On the southern side are the Theatre of Dionysus and the Odeon of Herodes Atticus. Some smaller sanctuaries were built partly into natural caves. The ancient Acropolis therefore included far more than the great temples on its summit.

Parthenon: The Parthenon is the largest and best-known building on the Acropolis. Built between 447 and 432 BC, the temple was designed by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates and constructed almost entirely from pale Pentelic marble. It was dedicated to Athena and is distinguished by exceptionally precise architectural refinements. The stepped platform and parts of the entablature are slightly curved. The columns have an almost imperceptible swelling, and their spacing was deliberately adjusted. The exact effect these refinements were intended to create has still not been conclusively determined. Inside stood a monumental statue of Athena made of gold and ivory by the sculptor Phidias. Its gold covering formed part of Athens’ public wealth and could be used as a financial reserve in times of emergency. The Parthenon also served as a treasury. Valuable objects and, for a time, payments from members of the Athenian-led Delian League were stored in its western chamber.

Erechtheion: Built between 421 and 406 BC, the Erechtheion differs significantly from the other temples on the Acropolis. Its unusual, multi-part layout resulted from the need to combine several older sacred sites within a single building on uneven ground. Among other things, the ancient wooden cult statue of Athena was worshipped here. The southern porch with its six Caryatids is particularly famous. These female figures serve as supports in place of columns. Replicas stand there today. Five originals are housed in the Acropolis Museum, while the sixth Caryatid is in the British Museum in London.

Propylaea: The Propylaea form the monumental main entrance to the Acropolis. They were built between 437 and 431 BC to designs by the architect Mnesicles. The central building combines Doric columns on the façades with Ionic columns inside. Five passageways led onto the plateau. The broad central passage was intended for the great Panathenaic procession and the sacrificial animals accompanying it. The complex also included two side wings. When the Peloponnesian War began in 431 BC, construction was halted, leaving the Propylaea unfinished.

Temple of Athena Nike: The small Ionic temple was built between 426 and 421 BC on a bastion at the south-western edge of the Acropolis and was dedicated to Athena as the goddess of victory. Its frieze depicts, among other scenes, battles between Greeks and Persians. Around 410 BC, the bastion was given an elaborately decorated marble parapet featuring reliefs of winged goddesses of victory. These include the famous Nike bending down to adjust her sandal. In 1687, the Ottomans dismantled the temple and reused its marble blocks for new fortifications. Many of the architectural elements survived, allowing the temple to be largely reconstructed later.

Theatre of Dionysus: One of the most important sites in the history of ancient theatre lies on the southern slope of the Acropolis. Its origins date back to the late 6th century BC. During the great festivals in honour of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility, Greek drama developed here. Works by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes were first performed at this location. At first, spectators sat on wooden structures. From around 350 BC, a monumental stone theatre was built with room for approximately 17,000 spectators. The Theatre of Dionysus thus became a model for numerous later theatres across the ancient world.

Odeon of Herodes Atticus: The monumental odeon on the southern slope of the Acropolis was built in AD 161 by Herodes Atticus in memory of his late wife Regilla. Originally roofed, the building was primarily intended for musical performances and could accommodate around 5,000 spectators. Following extensive restoration work in the 1950s, the odeon was once again used for events and became an important venue for the Athens Epidaurus Festival. After the final performances in June 2026, it was closed for extensive restoration work. The work is expected to take at least three years.

Other sanctuaries: In addition to the major temples, numerous smaller sanctuaries existed on and around the Acropolis. Near the Propylaea stood the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia from the 6th century BC onwards. The goddess was worshipped here particularly as a protector of women during pregnancy and childbirth, as well as of children. On the southern slope, the Asklepieion, a sanctuary dedicated to the healing god Asclepius, was established in 420/419 BC. It also served as a place of healing. Sick people spent the night there in the hope that the god would appear in their dreams and provide guidance for their treatment.

Athena Promachos: Near the Propylaea once stood a colossal bronze statue of Athena attributed to the sculptor Phidias. The figure, around 9 metres tall, was created in the middle of the 5th century BC and showed the goddess armed with spear and shield. It was one of the largest and most striking monuments on the Acropolis. In late antiquity, the statue was taken to Constantinople. It was probably the large bronze statue of Athena that was destroyed there during unrest in 1203.

Athena’s olive tree: Beside the Erechtheion, an olive tree recalls the mythical contest between Athena and Poseidon for the patronage of Athens. Poseidon is said to have created a saltwater spring with his trident, while Athena gave the city an olive tree. According to tradition, the Athenians chose Athena and made her the patron goddess of their city. The olive tree standing there today symbolises this gift and is not the original tree from the myth.

Acropolis Museum: The Acropolis Museum, which opened in 2009, lies around 300 metres south-east of the Acropolis and displays finds from the rocky hill and its slopes. Among its best-known exhibits are five of the six surviving Caryatids from the Erechtheion, along with numerous sculptures from the Parthenon. The top floor is devoted entirely to the Parthenon. Its central exhibition space follows the orientation and dimensions of the interior of the ancient temple while also offering views of the Acropolis. Beneath the museum building, excavated streets, houses and workshops from an ancient Athenian neighbourhood are accessible to visitors.

Modern restoration: Earlier restoration work in the 19th and early 20th centuries sometimes used iron fastenings and concrete. Over time, the iron rusted and expanded, causing the ancient marble to split in many places. Since 1975, these problems have been addressed through a scientific restoration programme. Specialists remove problematic additions, reassemble surviving fragments and return incorrectly positioned architectural elements to their original locations wherever possible. Missing sections are supplemented with new Pentelic marble only where necessary. Corrosion-resistant titanium is used for connections. The aim is to preserve as much ancient material as possible and correct mistakes made during earlier restorations. Work on the monuments continues to this day.

Origin of the name: The name Acropolis comes from Ancient Greek. It is formed from words meaning “high” or “upper” and “city”, giving the sense of an “upper city”. The Greeks used the term acropolis for the elevated and often fortified part of a city. Depending on the location, such heights served as places of refuge, seats of power or religious centres.

UNESCO World Heritage Site: The Acropolis has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987. UNESCO recognises it as an outstanding testament to ancient Greek culture and as one of the most important architectural complexes of the 5th century BC. Its temples and architectural forms influenced building traditions far beyond Greece and became particularly important models for later Neoclassical architecture.