Circus Maximus: The Largest Racetrack of Antiquity

Location: Circus Maximus lies in the historic centre of Rome, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills. Major landmarks such as the Colosseum, the Roman Forum and the Palatine Hill are located nearby.

Significance: Circus Maximus was the largest venue for public entertainment in the ancient world. Enormous events were once staged here in front of vast crowds. Today, only relatively few structural remains of the monumental complex survive. Its extraordinary scale, however, can still be clearly recognised from the long, narrow shape of the site.

Early history: The area where the racetrack was later built was originally marshy and crossed by a stream. To make permanent use of the valley floor possible, the land had to be drained and the watercourse regulated. According to Roman tradition, chariot races were already held here in the 6th century BC during the reign of the Etruscan kings. At that time, however, there was not yet a circus in the later monumental sense. Spectators probably watched the races from wooden stands or from the surrounding slopes.

First construction phase: According to Roman tradition, King Tarquinius Priscus had the first raised spectator areas built along the racetrack in the 6th century BC. The early stands were probably made largely of wood and gradually expanded over time. In 329 BC, permanent starting gates for the chariots were added. These were rebuilt in 174 BC, when seven large eggs were also installed as lap counters. After each completed lap, one of the eggs was moved. This allowed spectators to see how many of the seven laps had already been completed.

Expansion under Caesar and Augustus: Circus Maximus underwent a major transformation under Julius Caesar. In 46 BC, he had the racetrack extended and a water-filled ditch built between the track and the spectator stands. Among other things, it was intended to protect the crowd during animal fights. In 33 BC, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa added seven bronze dolphins to the lap-counting system. From then on, the eggs and dolphins were used in parallel to show the progress of the seven racing laps. After a major fire in 31 BC, Augustus had the Circus restored and further embellished. During his reign, the Pulvinar was also created, a specially elevated viewing area from which the emperor and his entourage could watch the games. In 10 BC, Augustus had an Egyptian obelisk erected along the central axis of the racetrack. Since 1589, it has stood in Piazza del Popolo.

Further rebuilding and fires: Under Emperor Claudius, the starting gates were extensively rebuilt in the 1st century AD and fitted with marble. The turning markers were also enhanced and decorated with gilded bronze elements. Large parts of the upper spectator stands, however, were still made of wood, so fire remained a constant threat. During the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, substantial sections of the Circus were once again destroyed. In AD 81, a monumental three-arched triumphal arch was also built at the semicircular end in honour of Emperor Titus and his victory over Jerusalem.

Trajan’s monumental reconstruction: Circus Maximus acquired its final monumental form at the beginning of the 2nd century under Emperor Trajan. After further fire damage, he had the complex almost completely rebuilt, making far greater use of stone, brick and Roman concrete. By around AD 103, the reconstruction was largely complete. The spectator stands were enlarged, access routes improved and the façades made more imposing. Most of the ancient structural remains still visible at the site today date from this phase.

Late Antiquity: Even after Trajan, the Circus was repeatedly repaired and expanded. One particularly spectacular addition came in AD 357, when Emperor Constantius II had a second enormous Egyptian obelisk erected. It stood beside the obelisk of Augustus and can now be seen as the Lateran Obelisk in Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano. The Circus remained in use for centuries and continued to operate even after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The last recorded chariot race took place in AD 549 under the Ostrogothic king Totila.

Decline and excavations: After the races ended in the 6th century, the Circus lost its original function and gradually fell into ruin. Building materials were removed, the land was used for agriculture, and parts of the ancient complex disappeared beneath soil and other deposits. In the Middle Ages, a new water channel ran through the former racetrack. Gardens and mills were later established on the site. From the 19th century onwards, the area was used for workshops, storage facilities and industrial buildings, among other purposes. In the 1930s, extensive excavations uncovered parts of the semicircular end and remains of the Arch of Titus. Further investigations were completed in 2016. These revealed that the original ancient racetrack surface now lies more than 5 metres below modern ground level in some places.

Architecture: In its monumental form, Circus Maximus was about 600 metres long and 140 metres wide. Multi-storey spectator stands surrounded the elongated racetrack and could be reached via stairways, corridors and vaulted passages. Arcades lined the lower level of the outer façade and housed numerous shops, taverns and other rooms that were also used on days without events. Money changers were among those who worked there. They exchanged foreign coins for Roman currency, changed larger sums into smaller coins and checked coins for authenticity. Public latrines with benches and openings were also provided for the huge crowds. Sewage channels ran beneath the seats and carried away human waste.

How the chariot races worked: At the straight end of Circus Maximus were 12 starting gates known as carceres. Lots were drawn to decide which gate each driver would start from. The gates were arranged in a slight curve so that every team had to cover as equal a distance as possible to a white line. Only after crossing this line were they allowed to leave their designated lanes and compete for the best position. To start the race, the presiding magistrate dropped a white cloth known as the mappa. The gates then opened at the same time and the teams charged onto the track. A typical race covered 7 laps, with a total distance of just over 5 kilometres and 13 tight turns. The fastest teams could probably complete the course in around 8 to 9 minutes. Light racing chariots pulled by 4 horses, known as quadrigae, were especially common. Their drivers tried to reach the shorter inside line as early as possible and fought for every metre when overtaking and approaching the turning points. The key was to take the tight bends as closely as possible without losing too much speed or colliding with another team.

Dangers of chariot racing: Collisions and overturned chariots occurred repeatedly, especially at the start and in the tight turns. The Romans referred to these sometimes spectacular crashes as naufragia, a word that roughly translates as “shipwrecks”. Drivers wrapped the reins around their waists so they could control the horses with their whole body. In the event of a fall, however, this created the danger of being dragged by the horses or run over by following teams. For this reason, drivers carried a knife that they could use to cut the reins in an emergency. Such accidents could be fatal. Tomb inscriptions record the early deaths of individual charioteers, but it is not known how many drivers in total lost their lives during races at Circus Maximus.

A day at the races: A race day at Circus Maximus was a major social event and could last for many hours. Spectators could not choose their seats entirely freely, as certain sections of the stands were reserved for particular social groups. Especially under Emperor Augustus, seating arrangements became more strictly regulated and reflected Rome’s social hierarchy. Between races, people ate, talked and placed bets on drivers or racing factions. During special games, money, food, tokens or other gifts were sometimes distributed to the crowd. Such gifts were intended to demonstrate the organiser’s generosity and could also increase his popularity with the people.

Other events: In addition to chariot races, Circus Maximus also hosted animal hunts, gladiatorial combats, public executions and elaborately staged battle scenes. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar even organised a large-scale staged land battle involving several hundred soldiers, horsemen and elephants. Equestrian displays such as the Ludus Troiae were also part of the programme. During these performances, young members of the Roman elite demonstrated military exercises. Many of these events formed part of religious festivals and were accompanied by ceremonial processions.

Name: The Latin name Circus Maximus literally means “the greatest circus”. Since there was initially no comparable racetrack in Rome, the venue was probably simply called the “Circus”. Only after other racetracks were built in the city did the addition Maximus become important in distinguishing it clearly from the other venues.

Medieval tower: Among the mostly low ruins of Circus Maximus, the well-preserved Torre della Moletta immediately stands out. The medieval tower dates from the 12th century and was part of a fortified complex. It received its present name from a watermill that later stood directly beside it. The surrounding buildings and remains of the fortifications were demolished in 1943, while the tower itself was preserved. The Torre della Moletta has since been restored and secured. An internal staircase leads to the upper floor, which offers an excellent view across the extensive site.

Events today: Circus Maximus still serves as an impressive setting for major events. Concerts, operas, dance performances and other cultural events are held across the vast site. As a result, the historic venue regularly attracts thousands of visitors during major events.

Virtual Reality: At the Circo Maximo Experience, visitors can discover what Circus Maximus may have looked like in different historical periods. They are given special immersive glasses and headphones. Thanks to the transparent technology, the present-day site remains visible while digital reconstructions are overlaid directly onto it. Lost buildings, for example, reappear in their former form. The tour lasts around 40 minutes and includes 8 stops. Along the way, visitors can walk through reconstructed Roman shops, experience different phases in the development of the Circus and even watch an ancient chariot race. In this way, the tour directly connects the ruins visible today with the site’s former appearance.

UNESCO World Heritage: Circus Maximus forms part of the historic centre of Rome, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1980. It is therefore part of an exceptional ensemble containing numerous important buildings and archaeological sites from several periods of the city’s history.