| Name: | Roman Forum |
| Construction period: | Late 7th century BC to early 4th century AD, followed by smaller additions |
| Period of greatest prosperity: | 1st century BC to early 3rd century AD |
| Beginning of decline: | 4th to 5th century AD |
| First excavations: | 1788 |
| Area of the central section: | approx. 15,000 m² |
| Number of visitors: | approx. 6 million visitors per year |
| UNESCO World Heritage Site: | since 1980 |
Roman Forum: Centre of Power, Marketplace and Stage of Ancient Rome
Location: The Roman Forum lies in the historic centre of Rome, between the Palatine Hill and the Capitoline Hill. The Colosseum and Circus Maximus are only a few minutes away on foot.
Significance: The site is one of the world’s best-known archaeological landmarks and one of Rome’s most important attractions. Its ruins continue to offer a fascinating insight into the political, religious and social life of ancient Rome.
Prehistory: Before the Roman Forum emerged, several early settlements occupied the surrounding hills. Between them lay a damp depression where the ruins of the Roman Forum can be seen today. The land flooded regularly, was initially of little practical use and temporarily served as a burial ground in some areas. Towards the end of the 7th century BC, the Romans began draining the water through open ditches. At the same time, they stabilised the marshy ground with soil, gravel and rubble. Over several centuries, these early measures developed into an extensive drainage system. Its main channel later became known as the Cloaca Maxima and was gradually enclosed beneath a stone vault. Parts of this ancient system continue to carry water from the historic city centre into the Tiber today.
Early building history: The Roman Forum was not built according to a single overall plan. Instead, it was expanded, renewed and remodelled over many centuries. During the 6th century BC, the first temples, assembly areas and public facilities were constructed around the central open space. Under the Roman Republic, from 509 to 27 BC, the site developed into the political, religious and social centre of Rome. The Senate met here, politicians addressed citizens from a speakers’ platform, and religious ceremonies took place in the surrounding sanctuaries. Shops and workshops also made the Roman Forum an important centre of everyday economic life. In the 2nd century BC, large covered halls were added for court proceedings, trade and public gatherings.
Development of the Imperial Fora: As Rome grew, the responsibilities of the state became increasingly extensive. As a result, the Roman Forum no longer provided enough space. In 54 BC, Julius Caesar therefore began constructing a new monumental forum directly beside it. It provided additional room for public business while also serving as an impressive demonstration of Caesar’s political power. Further magnificent fora were built under Augustus and later emperors. Although they did not replace the Roman Forum, they assumed an increasing share of its political, legal and representational functions.
Remodelling of the Roman Forum: At the same time as construction began on the Imperial Fora, Julius Caesar started to reorganise the increasingly crowded Roman Forum. He commissioned an enormous public hall, rebuilt and reoriented the Senate house, and moved the most important speakers’ platform to the western side of the square. After Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, Augustus continued the work and completed several new buildings. Triumphal arches, statues and other honorary monuments increasingly transformed the Roman Forum into a grand stage for imperial power. Later emperors also added new temples, memorials and monumental structures.
The fire of 52 BC: After the murder of the politician Publius Clodius Pulcher, his enraged supporters carried his body to the Roman Forum. Inside the Curia Hostilia, which served as the Senate house at the time, they placed him on an improvised funeral pyre made from wooden benches and other pieces of furniture. They then set the pyre alight. The fire destroyed the entire Senate house and a neighbouring public hall, making extensive reconstruction necessary.
Gladiatorial contests in the Roman Forum: Long before Rome had a permanent amphitheatre, the central area of the Roman Forum was transformed into a temporary arena for gladiatorial contests. Such spectacles are documented there as early as 216 BC. Wooden barriers and spectator stands surrounded the fighting area. Beneath paving dating from the time of Julius Caesar, archaeologists also discovered passageways, chambers and shafts. These were probably used to prepare and stage public events. Rome did not receive its first permanent amphitheatre until 29 BC, when the Amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was completed.
The great fire of 283: In 283, a major fire devastated large parts of the Roman Forum and damaged several of its most important buildings. Nothing certain is known about the cause or exact course of the fire. The Senate house and the Basilica Julia were particularly badly affected. Emperor Diocletian subsequently ordered the destroyed buildings to be extensively rebuilt and parts of the Roman Forum to be redesigned.
Final major building phase: At the beginning of the 4th century, Emperor Maxentius initiated the final major expansion of the Roman Forum. He began constructing an enormous basilica intended to serve as a law court, reception hall and assembly building. He also commissioned a temple for his son Valerius Romulus, who had died at a young age. After the emperor’s death in 312, Constantine completed the basilica and used the monumental structure to promote his own rule. In 608, a column was erected as an honorary monument to the Byzantine emperor Phocas. It is regarded as the final ancient monument built in the Roman Forum.
Decline and decay: From Late Antiquity onwards, the Roman Forum gradually lost its former importance. The imperial court and major parts of the imperial administration were transferred to other residential cities. At the same time, Rome’s religious and social life increasingly shifted to other parts of the city. There was therefore no single moment at which the site was completely abandoned. Over the following centuries, numerous buildings fell into ruin, disappeared beneath soil and rubble, or were used as sources of stone for new structures. Some ancient buildings survived because they were converted into Christian churches and continued to be maintained. Large parts of the former city centre were later used as pastureland and became known as Campo Vaccino, which roughly means “cow pasture”.
Research and excavations: From the 15th century onwards, scholars and artists became increasingly interested in the visible ruins of the Roman Forum. The first major excavations began in the early 19th century and initially focused mainly on particularly important monuments. After the unification of Italy in 1861, the site was investigated more extensively and systematically. During this work, archaeologists uncovered large parts of the ancient Roman Forum. Individual areas continue to be excavated, restored and studied using modern methods. This research regularly produces new insights into the site’s long history.
Layout of the Roman Forum: At the heart of the Roman Forum was a long, paved open space measuring approximately 130 metres in length and 50 metres in width during the imperial period. Over the centuries, temples, basilicas, speakers’ platforms and political and religious buildings were constructed around this square. Because the Roman Forum was repeatedly expanded and remodelled over such a long period, its buildings did not follow a unified plan. Instead, they stood close together and were sometimes arranged irregularly. The Roman Forum therefore extended far beyond the central square itself. Immediately to the south rises the Palatine Hill, where early settlements and, later, the palaces of the Roman emperors were built.
Trade: During its early history, the Roman Forum was a bustling marketplace. Traders sold everyday goods in permanent shops and at simple stalls. It was especially crowded during the Nundinae, regularly held market days that took place every eight days. Farmers from the surrounding countryside brought their produce to Rome and purchased goods they needed themselves. They also used their visits to deal with business, legal and political matters. From the late 4th century BC onwards, the food trade was increasingly moved to separate markets. Money changers, bankers and other financial service providers settled around the Roman Forum instead.
Election campaigns: Anyone seeking public office during the Roman Republic had to appear regularly in the Roman Forum and personally campaign for support. Candidates wore a strikingly white toga known as the toga candida. The modern word “candidate” is derived from its name. To appear as popular and influential as possible, they greeted citizens, shook hands and had an attendant whisper the names of potential voters to them. Banquets, personal favours and sought-after seats at public games and gladiatorial contests were intended to win additional support. Attempts at bribery also occurred repeatedly despite being prohibited by law.
Political violence: The Roman Forum was not only Rome’s political centre but also a setting for state violence and public intimidation. Convicted enemies of the state could be led through the Roman Forum to the prison complex at the foot of the Capitoline Hill and executed in the underground Tullianum. One particularly famous case was that of Cicero, one of the most important orators and politicians of the late Roman Republic. After fiercely attacking Mark Antony in several speeches, Cicero was proscribed by the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC and murdered while attempting to escape. His head and hands were then displayed on the Rostra. Cicero had previously used this speakers’ platform to play a decisive role in the political life of Rome.
Meeting place: The Roman Forum was the city’s most important meeting place. People gathered there to hear the latest news, meet acquaintances and maintain personal relationships. Anyone who appeared regularly in the Roman Forum could establish business contacts, gain supporters and learn at an early stage about the decisions, trials and conflicts occupying Rome. This created a dense information network through which news spread rapidly across the city.
Via Sacra: The Via Sacra passed through the Roman Forum and was one of the most important roads in ancient Rome. In everyday life, it was a busy traffic route. During major victory celebrations, however, the section passing through the Roman Forum became the most ceremonial part of the triumphal procession. The victorious commander travelled through the centre of the city towards the Capitoline Hill, accompanied by soldiers, prisoners, captured treasures, musicians and sacrificial animals. The procession ended at the Temple of Jupiter with religious ceremonies and a sacrifice.
Curia Julia: The Curia Julia was the main meeting place of the Roman Senate and had room for several hundred senators. Julius Caesar began constructing the new building, but Emperor Augustus did not inaugurate it until 29 BC. During meetings, the senators sat on raised tiers along the long walls. The presiding official directed proceedings from the front of the chamber. After a subject had been introduced, the senators usually delivered their speeches in a fixed order of rank before the proposals were put to a vote. They often made their decision visible by moving to the side representing the position they supported. After a severe fire in 283, the Curia had to be largely rebuilt under Emperor Diocletian. The building visible today therefore dates mainly from around the year 300. The original bronze doors have been located at the Basilica of Saint John Lateran since the 17th century, while replicas are now installed at the Curia.
Lapis Niger: Directly in front of the Curia Julia lies the Lapis Niger, a mysterious area covered with slabs of black marble. Beneath it are the remains of a cult site that already held special religious significance during Rome’s early history. Ancient traditions associated the location with the supposed tomb of Romulus, the legendary founder of the city. However, there is no archaeological evidence to support this claim. Archaeologists also discovered an inscribed stone pillar dating from the 6th century BC. Its fragmentary inscription is one of the oldest known examples of the Latin language.
Assembly area and speakers’ platform: The Comitium and the Rostra, two central locations in Roman political life, stood in the north-western part of the Roman Forum. Citizens gathered in the Comitium for popular assemblies, public discussions and court proceedings. From the neighbouring speakers’ platform, politicians addressed the population and sought support for their plans. The Rostra took its name from bronze ship rams attached to the bows of ancient warships. They came from the fleet of the coastal city of Antium, which was defeated in 338 BC. Antium corresponds to the modern town of Anzio, south of Rome. Very little of the Comitium or the Rostra remains visible today.
The great basilicas: The Basilica Aemilia and the Basilica Julia were two enormous public halls that stood along the long sides of the Roman Forum. Despite what the modern meaning of the word might suggest, these were not churches but important centres of legal, economic and social life. Court proceedings took place in their spacious interiors, contracts were signed, business was conducted and public affairs were discussed. The Basilica Aemilia was particularly closely associated with merchants, bankers and money changers, while the larger Basilica Julia served mainly as a law court. Multi-storey colonnades, galleries, marble facing and elaborate reliefs gave both buildings a magnificent appearance. Today, mainly foundation walls, platforms, marble floors, steps and individual column fragments survive. These remains still reveal the enormous scale of the two halls.
A shower of money: According to the Roman writer Suetonius, Emperor Caligula had large quantities of coins thrown from the Basilica Julia into the Roman Forum over several days. The population was allowed to collect the money while the emperor presented himself as a generous ruler. At the same time, this spectacular shower of money reflected the extravagance through which Caligula spent much of the fortune left by his predecessor Tiberius within a short period. When his treasury was empty, he introduced numerous new taxes. These included a tax on the income of prostitutes.
Temple of Saturn: The Temple of Saturn was one of the oldest and most important sanctuaries in the Roman Forum. Its massive substructure housed the Aerarium, the Roman state treasury, where financial reserves and important public documents were kept. The Saturnalia began here every year on 17 December. This multi-day festival featured lavish meals, gifts and a temporary relaxation of social rules. Enslaved people were allowed to dine with their masters, express their opinions openly and were sometimes even symbolically served by them. Gambling was also permitted during the celebrations. Eight columns of the once-monumental temple still survive today. Most date from a Late Antique reconstruction following a fire.
Temple of Castor and Pollux: The temple was dedicated to Castor and Pollux, the divine twins who, according to legend, helped the Romans achieve victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus. After the battle, they were said to have watered their horses at the nearby Spring of Juturna and brought news of the Roman victory to the people in the Roman Forum. The sanctuary, inaugurated in 484 BC, was rebuilt several times over the centuries. It was later also used for Senate meetings and court proceedings, as well as for storing money and valuables. Most of the remains visible today come from the monumental reconstruction inaugurated by Tiberius in AD 6. The three tall Corinthian columns are particularly striking. They have remained standing since antiquity and are among the best-known ruins of the Roman Forum.
Temple of Vesta: The Temple of Vesta was one of the most sacred places in the Roman Forum. The fire of the goddess Vesta burned inside and, as a symbol of Rome’s continued existence, was never allowed to go out. It was guarded by six Vestal Virgins, highly respected priestesses who performed important religious duties for the Roman state. The Pontifex Maximus, the chief priest of the Roman state religion, usually selected them from distinguished families between the ages of six and ten. This marked the beginning of thirty years of service, during which they remained chaste, cared for the sanctuary and participated in public ceremonies. In return, they enjoyed exceptional privileges. Parts of the circular platform and a partially reconstructed colonnade with Corinthian capitals survive today.
House of the Vestal Virgins: Immediately beside the Temple of Vesta stood the Atrium Vestae, the extensive residential complex of the Vestal Virgins. The multi-storey building was arranged around a long courtyard with three pools, colonnades and statues of senior Vestal Virgins. The remains of living quarters, a mill, an oven, bathing facilities and heating systems still offer an impression of the priestesses’ communal way of life.
Temple of Julius Caesar: The Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar stands on the eastern side of the Roman Forum. It was built on the site where Caesar’s body is believed to have been publicly cremated in 44 BC. After the Senate officially declared Caesar a god, his adopted son Octavian completed the temple. In doing so, he also strengthened his own claim to be the “son of the deified one”. Today, only parts of the platform and a semicircular niche containing an altar survive. The altar commemorates Caesar’s cremation in the Roman Forum. Visitors continue to leave flowers and small messages there. However, there is no confirmed grave of Caesar at this location.
Arch of Titus: The Arch of Titus was built shortly after the emperor’s death in AD 81 and commemorates the Roman victory over Jerusalem. Its famous reliefs depict the triumphal procession in which soldiers carried valuable objects from the Temple of Jerusalem, destroyed in AD 70, through the streets of Rome. The depiction of the seven-branched menorah, whose present whereabouts are unknown, is particularly striking. It was one of the temple’s holiest ritual objects and was brought to Rome as war booty. A relief on the ceiling shows Titus on the back of an eagle and symbolises his admission among the Roman gods. The badly damaged arch was restored in the 19th century. The missing sections were deliberately completed using a different type of stone, making them clearly distinguishable from the ancient sections today.
Museum: The Museo del Foro Romano is housed in former monastery rooms directly beside the Arch of Titus. Its history began in 1908, when the archaeologist Giacomo Boni first displayed finds from his excavations in the Roman Forum there. Its most important exhibits include early graves, statues, marble reliefs and so-called hut urns. These are small urns shaped like simple dwellings. Since reopening in 2021, the museum has clearly illustrated how the Roman Forum developed over many centuries.
Origin of the name: The Latin name Forum Romanum roughly means “public square of Rome” and refers to its central role in the city’s political, religious and social life. Initially, the name Forum was probably sufficient because the square was clearly recognised as Rome’s most important public centre. As additional market fora and Imperial Fora were created, more precise names became necessary. Alongside Forum Romanum, it was also called Forum Magnum, meaning “Great Forum”.
UNESCO World Heritage Site: The Roman Forum has formed part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site “Historic Centre of Rome” since 1980. The protected area includes almost the entire historic city centre within the ancient walls, several properties belonging to the Holy See and the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls.
