Petra: The Legendary Rock-Cut City of the Nabataeans

Location: Petra lies in southern Jordan, surrounded by a rugged mountain landscape of reddish sandstone. The ancient rock-cut city is located right beside Wadi Musa, around 240 kilometres south of the capital Amman and about 120 kilometres north of Aqaba. Towering rock walls, deep valleys and narrow gorges such as the famous Siq define this spectacular landscape.

Significance: As Jordan’s best-known tourist attraction, Petra is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world. In 2007, the rock-cut city was chosen as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World. The privately organised vote originally included 176 candidates. Across several rounds, more than 100 million votes were cast worldwide via the internet, telephone and SMS.

Prehistory: The region around Petra was inhabited thousands of years before the famous rock-cut city emerged. In nearby Beidha, a Neolithic settlement with permanent houses, agriculture and livestock farming existed roughly between 7000 and 6500 BC. It was abandoned long before Petra was founded and was not a direct precursor to the later city. People also lived in the region during the Iron Age. On the rocky plateau of Umm al-Biyara, a settlement attributed to the Edomites existed in the late 8th and 7th centuries BC.

Construction History: From the Hellenistic period onwards, Petra developed into the political and economic centre of the Nabataeans. By the 3rd century BC at the latest, the previously sparsely populated region had begun to develop into an urban settlement. As prosperity from long-distance trade grew, Petra was steadily expanded. Temples, residential districts, streets and monumental rock-cut façades were built especially during the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. At the same time, the Nabataeans created a sophisticated water system of channels, pipelines, dams, cisterns and reservoirs. This allowed them to collect rainwater, control flash floods and reliably supply a growing population with water in the arid landscape. Under King Aretas IV, who ruled from 9 BC to AD 40, Petra experienced one of its most important periods of prosperity. During this time, numerous prestigious buildings were added to the city.

Golden Age: In the 1st century AD, Petra reached one of its greatest periods of prosperity. The capital of the Nabataean Kingdom was an important centre of trade, administration and religion. Estimates of its population vary, although a figure of around 20,000 people is often cited. Merchants and caravans connected Petra with Arabia, Egypt, Syria and the Mediterranean region. They brought valuable goods such as frankincense, spices and textiles into the city. At the same time, stonemasons, craftspeople and construction workers expanded the temples, residential districts and monumental rock-cut façades. Religious ceremonies also played an important role. Archaeological finds provide evidence of offerings and communal meals. However, many details of Nabataean rituals remain unclear to this day.

The Nabataeans: The Nabataeans were an Arab people who rose to become a major power in the southern Levant from the 4th century BC onwards. They adapted skilfully to the arid environment and created sophisticated systems for collecting and storing water. Much of their wealth came from long-distance trade. The caravan routes they used carried goods such as frankincense, myrrh and spices from Arabia towards the Mediterranean. Their religion was rooted in Arab traditions but also absorbed influences from the Greek and Roman worlds. One of their most important deities was Dushara, who was particularly revered in Petra. Their writing system also left an important legacy. The Nabataean script developed from Aramaic and is regarded as an important precursor of the later Arabic script.

Roman Period: In AD 106, Emperor Trajan incorporated the Nabataean Kingdom into the Roman Empire and turned its territory into the province of Arabia. Petra therefore lost its role as the capital of an independent kingdom but remained an important centre of trade and administration. The city continued to expand under Roman rule. The main street was paved and lined with colonnades, shops and public buildings. Nabataean traditions survived and increasingly blended with Greek and Roman influences. A severe earthquake caused extensive damage in AD 363. Petra never fully recovered, although it remained inhabited.

Christian and Byzantine Period: From the 4th century onwards, Christianity became increasingly important in Petra, and the city became the seat of a bishop. Several churches were built in the 5th century. The monumental Urn Tomb was also converted into a church during this period. One of the most important new buildings was the Petra Church, constructed around the middle of the 5th century and decorated with elaborate floor mosaics. In 1993, archaeologists discovered around 140 charred papyrus scrolls from the 6th century there. The documents, most of them written in Greek, record property transactions, inheritances, marriages, dowries and legal disputes. Today, the Petra Church survives only as a ruin. However, parts of its walls and columns and, above all, its floor mosaics are still visible. The finds show that Petra continued to have an active urban, economic and religious life even after its former importance had declined.

Islamic Period: In the 7th century, the region around Petra came under Muslim rule. However, settlement did not suddenly cease. The old city centre gradually lost importance, while more of everyday life shifted to smaller villages and agricultural settlements in the surrounding area. Petra was therefore not abruptly abandoned but gradually changed over several centuries from an important city into a sparsely populated rural region.

History of Exploration: Petra was never forgotten by the people of the region. Local inhabitants and Bedouins knew the ruins for centuries, while the ancient city remained little known in Europe for a long time. In 1812, the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt visited Petra under the name Sheikh Ibrahim. To reach the remote region as inconspicuously as possible, he claimed that he wanted to sacrifice a goat at the tomb of the Prophet Aaron. His travel accounts, published in 1822, brought Petra back to European attention and sparked the interest of other travellers and scholars. Throughout the 19th century, increasingly accurate drawings, maps and descriptions of the ruins were produced. Towards the end of the century, systematic surveys and scientific inventories began. Extensive archaeological excavations followed in the 20th century. Petra continues to be intensively studied today. Modern research methods regularly provide new insights into its buildings, tombs, inscriptions and the development of the ancient city.

Siq: The Siq, around 1.2 kilometres long, is a narrow natural rock gorge and the main entrance to the ancient city of Petra. Between its high sandstone walls, the winding path narrows to around 3 metres in some places. The Nabataeans paved the route and installed water channels on both sides to supply Petra with fresh water. A dam at the entrance and the 88-metre-long Al-Mudhlim Tunnel diverted dangerous flash floods away from the gorge. Numerous niches and sacred stone markers were carved into the rock walls, reflecting the religious importance of the route. At the end of the Siq, the gorge opens up to reveal the famous view of the monumental façade of Al-Khazneh.

The Treasury: Al-Khazneh is Petra’s most famous monument. Its 39.5-metre-high façade was carved directly into the reddish sandstone and was probably created at the beginning of the 1st century AD under King Aretas IV. Despite its name, the structure was not a treasury but most likely a monumental tomb, possibly intended for the king himself. Its elaborate façade combines Hellenistic-inspired architecture with Nabataean forms and religious symbols. In striking contrast to the magnificent exterior, the rock-cut chambers behind it are almost completely undecorated.

Ad-Deir Monastery: Ad-Deir is one of Petra’s largest and most impressive rock-cut monuments. Its façade, around 48 metres high and 47 metres wide, was carved directly into the sandstone. The structure was probably created at the beginning of the 2nd century AD under King Rabbel II. The interior, with stone benches along the sides and an altar against the rear wall, was probably used for religious gatherings and ritual meals. An inscription from the surrounding area suggests that Ad-Deir was associated with the cult of the deified Nabataean king Obodas. Only centuries later was the space used as a Christian chapel. Crosses carved into the rock still bear witness to this and gave the monument its modern name, “Monastery”. From the area near Qasr al-Bint, a steep path with around 800 steps leads up to Ad-Deir. From there, sweeping views open up across the surrounding mountain landscape.

Royal Tombs: High above the ancient city centre, four particularly monumental tombs stand on the rock massif of Jabal al-Khubtha: the Urn Tomb, the Silk Tomb, the Corinthian Tomb and the Palace Tomb. Because of their size and prominent location, they are known as the Royal Tombs. However, it is not known who they actually belonged to, as no conclusive inscriptions have survived. They were probably created for members of the Nabataean ruling family or other members of the elite. Their elaborately carved sandstone façades combine Nabataean traditions with strong Hellenistic influences. Particularly striking are the natural layers of colour in the Silk Tomb and the monumental, multi-storey appearance of the Palace Tomb. The Urn Tomb was later remodelled and consecrated as a Christian church by Bishop Jason in AD 447.

The Great Theatre: Petra’s theatre was probably built in the early 1st century AD under King Aretas IV. The horseshoe-shaped seating area, rising up the slope, was largely carved directly into the sandstone hillside and probably had space for up to around 6,000 people. Parts of older rock-cut tombs had to be removed during its construction. Their traces can still be seen behind the rows of seats today. It is not known with certainty what kinds of events were held here during the Nabataean period. The theatre was probably used for religious ceremonies and public gatherings. After Petra was incorporated into the Roman Empire, the structure was remodelled and received, among other additions, a monumental stage wall. During the Roman period, theatrical performances, musical events and other public entertainments were probably also held here.

The City Centre: West of the theatre, the valley opens into what was once Petra’s densely built-up city centre. The older Nabataean main street initially followed the winding course of Wadi Musa. After Petra was incorporated into the Roman Empire, it was straightened and paved in the 2nd century. Rows of columns and shops then lined the broad thoroughfare. Important buildings around the street included the Nymphaeum, the so-called Great Temple, the Temple of the Winged Lions and Qasr al-Bint. Gardens, baths and public facilities completed the urban landscape. A sophisticated network of pipes, channels and reservoirs supplied the centre with water. The surviving ruins clearly show that Petra did not consist only of monumental rock-cut tombs but was a vast capital with residential districts, sanctuaries, shops and public buildings.

The Great Temple: The so-called Great Temple is one of Petra’s most important freestanding buildings. The entire complex covers around 7,560 square metres and began to take shape in the late 1st century BC. It was expanded in several construction phases and equipped with monumental staircases, courtyards and colonnades. Particularly striking were the column capitals decorated with elaborately carved elephant heads. In the upper section was a small theatre-like hall with space for around 600 people. It may have been used for gatherings, speeches or religious ceremonies. Since its exact function remains unclear, the name “Great Temple” is also not definitively established.

The Garden: East of the Great Temple was an extraordinary garden and water complex that the Nabataeans probably created in the early 1st century BC. A large planted terrace with walkways surrounded a monumental pool. At its centre, a pavilion stood on an artificial island reached by a narrow bridge. A sophisticated system of channels, pipelines and water reservoirs supplied both the pool and the plants. Finds of planting pits, flowerpots and plant remains provide evidence of the elaborate design of the complex. In Petra’s arid landscape, such a garden and the generous use of water were visible signs of wealth and technical skill.

The Temple Precinct: At the western end of the Colonnaded Street lay Petra’s religious centre. A monumental gateway led into the sacred precinct of Qasr al-Bint, one of the city’s most important and best-preserved freestanding sanctuaries. The temple was probably dedicated to Dushara, the chief god of the Nabataeans. North of the Colonnaded Street stood the Temple of the Winged Lions. It was probably dedicated to the goddess al-Uzza and took its name from its striking column capitals decorated with winged lions. Sacred stone markers known as betyls also played an important role in Nabataean religion and could symbolise the presence of a deity. The temples, altars and open courtyards formed a central setting for offerings, processions and other religious ceremonies.

High Place of Sacrifice: On Jabal al-Madhbah high above Petra lies one of the most important Nabataean cult sites. An ancient processional route with steps carved into the rock led up to the summit. There is a rectangular ceremonial area with stone benches, an altar, basins and drainage channels. The complex was probably used for religious rituals in which sacrifices were made and water was used for cultic practices. Nearby stand two obelisks more than 6 metres high, carved directly from the rock. They may have symbolised one or more deities.

The Residential Districts: Petra’s residential districts extended across terraces and mountain slopes around the city centre. Archaeological excavations reveal clear differences between simple houses and spacious homes belonging to wealthy families. Particularly impressive is a Nabataean villa on the hill of ez-Zantur dating from the early 1st century AD. It had an inner courtyard, prestigious rooms, paved floors, elaborate wall paintings and stucco decoration. Other residential complexes had cisterns, water pipes and small gardens. Today, only foundations and isolated sections of wall survive from many houses. As a result, the monumental rock-cut tombs shape Petra’s modern appearance far more strongly than the once extensive residential districts.

Bedouin Cultural Heritage: For generations, the Bdoul lived in caves and former rock-cut tombs within Petra and developed a close connection to the landscape and the historic structures. In 1985, most of the community was relocated to the newly built village of Umm Sayhoun on the edge of the archaeological area. Among other aims, the measure was intended to protect the ancient monuments and facilitate Petra’s tourism development. The cultural heritage of the Bedouins in Petra and Wadi Rum includes oral traditions, traditional knowledge of nature and medicinal plants, as well as skills in camel husbandry, tent-making, tracking and climbing. This “Cultural Space of the Bedu in Petra and Wadi Rum” was inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008.

Little Petra: Around 6 kilometres north of Petra’s ancient city centre lies Siq al-Barid, today usually known as Little Petra. Cisterns, façades and several dining rooms carved into the rock were created within the narrow gorge. Guests were probably received there and communal meals were held. Particularly remarkable is a dining hall with rare surviving wall paintings. Grapevines, flowers, birds and mythological figures make these paintings some of the most important examples of Nabataean art.

Petra by Night: During Petra by Night, the route leads through the Siq after dark to the Treasury, Al-Khazneh. Around 2,000 candles illuminate the gorge and the square in front of the famous rock-cut façade. Since a redesign in 2025, the event has combined traditional candlelight with music, storytelling and modern light projections on the Treasury. This offers a completely different way to experience Petra from a daytime visit.

Origin of the Name: The name Petra comes from the Ancient Greek word “pétra” and means “rock” or “stone”. The Nabataeans themselves called their capital Raqmu or Reqem, as ancient sources and Nabataean inscriptions show. The exact meaning of this name remains uncertain. It is often linked to a Semitic root meaning “to mark” or “to decorate”. However, interpretations such as “the decorated one” or “the colourful one” remain uncertain.

UNESCO World Heritage Site: Petra has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. UNESCO recognises its exceptional rock-cut architecture, sophisticated water management and the great historical importance of the former Nabataean capital.